Digital Primary Source Archives & Websites Spanish Civil War 1936-1939 Yale University Library Research Guides At Yale University

Another doctor, William Harvey (1578 – 1657), conclusively demonstrated that blood flows through the body by being pumped by the heart, not emanating out of the liver as had been believed before. Shortly after his death, other doctors used a new invention, the microscope, the detect the capillaries that connect arteries to other tissues. Increasingly, physicians began to consider the human body as an item written into the Book of Nature as well.

It sailed in 1588, but was resoundingly defeated by a smaller English fleet in a sea battle in the English Channel. The English ships were smaller and more maneuverable, their cannons were faster and easier to reload, and English captains knew how to navigate in the fickle winds of https://datingrated.com/mytransgenderdate-review/ the Channel more easily than did their Spanish counterparts, all of which spelled disaster for the Spanish fleet. The Armada was forced to limp around England, Scotland, and Ireland trying to get back to Spain, finally returning having lost half of its ships and thousands of men.

Far more women were independent by the 1920s than in the past, fashions really had changed, and thanks to halting advances in contraception, casual sexual relationships were easier to have without fear of pregnancy. It would take at least another half-century, however, for laws against sexual discrimination to come into being in most countries, and of course the struggle for cultural equality remains unfulfilled to this day. In Lenin’s mind, the obvious choice of a vanguard party was his own Russian communist party, the Bolsheviks.

Austria

The Republicans butchered a total of 13 bishops and 6,832 clergy, including 4,184 diocesan priests, 2,365 members of religious orders and 283 nuns. Their exhumed bodies often showed bullet wounds to the right hand, having been shot while blessing their murderers. Clearly, it was extremely reprehensible of Francisco Franco to terminate such classic democratic procedures and impose fascism. The leftist coalition government in Spain has approved a draft bill titled the Democratic Memory Law, which would make it a criminal offence to express support for the late General Franco or his ideas, with breaches of it incurring a maximum fine of €150,000. The bill has yet to be voted on by parliament, after which it is likely to face challenge in the courts. During the Civil War, POUM women served in many important roles including POUM governance, POUM militias, writing and publishing POUM-affiliated publications, and serving as teachers among the civilian population.

The Revolutionary government passed a number of radical measures under Robespierre’s leadership. Of all the changes instituted by the Revolutionary government during its radical phase, this was to be the most successful and long-lasting. Thus, just five years after the Revolution had begun, control was now in the hands of a small dictatorial committee of radicals who used violent repression to hold the nation together, continue the war against almost all of Europe, and soon, to pass even more radical measures.

That said, the Nazis were masters of fine-tuning their messages for the electorate; most of their propaganda had to do with German pride, unity, and the need for social and economic order and prosperity, not the hatred of Jews or the need to launch attacks on other European nations. They offered themselves as a solution to the inefficiency of the Weimar Republic, not as a potential bloodbath. While Mussolini was often praised in the foreign press, including in American newspapers and magazines, for accomplishments like making (a few) Italian trains run on time, in the long term the Fascist government proved to be inefficient and often outright ineffectual. Mussolini himself, convinced of his own genius, made arbitrary and often foolish decisions, especially when it came to building up and training the Italian military.

Sometimes, such as in the second section of his early work The Communist Manifesto, Marx alluded to the existence of a political party, the communists, who would work to help coordinate and aid the proletariat in the revolutionary process. The bottom line is, however, that Marx was very good at critiquing the internal laws of the free market in capitalism, and in pointing out many of its problems, but he had no tactical guide to revolutionary politics. And, finally, toward the end of his life, Marx himself was increasingly worried that socialists, including self-styled Marxists, would try to stage a revolution “too early” and it would fail or result in disaster. What had changed, however, was that the language of nationalism and the idea of national identity had come into its own by the late Napoleonic period. Two years later, a nationalist poet murdered a conservative one, and the Austrian Empire passed laws that severely limited freedom of speech, specifically to contain and restrict the spread of nationalism.

The Idea of Western Civilization by Christopher Brooks

Despite the German pseudo-invasion being poorly organized, most Austrians welcomed the German tanks that rolled into Austrian cities, and there was practically no resistance. Germans were at first apprehensive that this blatant violation of both the Versailles Treaty and the sovereignty of another nation would result in war, but instead it became a public relations boost for Hitler and the Nazis when there was no foreign response. In one fell swoop, Nazi laws and policies (most notably the entire edifice of anti-Semitic legislation) were imported to Austria, and there was a looting spree as Catholic Austrians attacked their Jewish countrymen. The nationalists triumphed in early 1939, having cut off the pockets of loyalists off from one another. They were recognized as the legitimate government of Spain internationally, and despite their promises to the contrary, they immediately began carrying out reprisals against the now-defeated loyalists.

He died in 1924, however, inaugurating a struggle within the Bolshevik leadership to succeed him. In 1927, Joseph Stalin politically defeated his enemies (most importantly the Bolshevik leaders Trotsky and Zinoviev, two of Lenin’s closest allies before his death) and consolidated total control of the state. Officially, Stalin was the “Premier” of the communist party – “the first” – overseeing its central decision-making committee, the Politburo. Unofficially, Stalin’s control of the top level of the party translated into pure autocracy, not hugely dissimilar in nature to the power of the Tsar before the revolution.

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The irony of the fact that England was the first state to move toward “modern” patterns and political dominance is that, at the start of the seventeenth century, England was a relative backwater. Its population was only a quarter of that of France and its monarchy was comparatively weak; precisely as France was reorganizing along absolutist lines, England’s monarchy was beset by powerful landowners with traditional privileges they were totally unwilling to relinquish. The English monarchy ran a kingdom with various ethnicities and divided religious loyalties, many of whom were hostile to the monarchy itself. It was an unlikely candidate for what would one day be the most powerful “Great Power” in Europe. Louis went on to a long and dazzling rule, achieving the height of royal power and prestige not just in France, but in all of Europe. He ruled from 1643 – 1715 (including the years in which he ruled under the guidance of a regent) meaning he was king for an astonishing 54 years; consider the fact that the average life expectancy for those surviving infancy was only about 40 years at the time(!).

Spain’s new citizenship law for Franco exiles offers hope in Latin America

Although our government keeps upholding in front of the entire country how “liberal” and open they are to feminism, the LGBTQ+ community, racism, etc. it isn’t at all like that. He considered gay and lesbian people the degeneration of the human race and diagnosed them with a mental illness. Fagot became an essential insult, and active persecutions weren’t even required, because self-censorship and social control were enough. Those homosexuals who were considered more liberal were considered as “sexual degenerates” and had to go into exile or end up in prison. The Civil War ended up producing a fracture in the LGBTQ+ community, along with the break that occurred in society in general. Extreme moralism, prudishness, and the hypocrisy that comes with it, the censorship of all the suspicious material and official sexophobia created an environment in which LGBTQ+ members found it very difficult to find spaces in which to feel comfortable.